Cartagena. [Map and views illustrating Sir Francis Drake’s West Indian voyage, 1585-6].
Baptista Boazio, Cartagena. [Map and views illustrating Sir Francis Drake’s West Indian voyage, 1585-6], 1589. Library of Congress, Rare Book and Special Collections Division.
Little is known about the early life of Juana, la Virreina de Matudere. She was most likely born in the early 1630s, but historians have been unable to confirm her place of birth or ancestry. Research shows that Juana was probably born in Africa, which means at some point she was kidnapped, shipped across the Atlantic Ocean, and sold into slavery in the city of Cartagena.
When Juana arrived, Cartagena was an important Caribbean port city for the Spanish colony of Peru. The economy of colonial Cartagena was fueled by the exploitation of enslaved people imported from Africa. By the time Juana was brought to the city, an estimated 3,000 to 4,000 enslaved Africans lived in Cartagena alongside 2,500 Spanish colonists.
Juana, her husband Domingo, and their sons Thomas and Vinzente lived in the household of their enslaver, Fernando Padilla. A Spanish official later noted that Juana “spoke like a Christian,” which suggests she fully assimilated into Spanish language and customs during her enslavement.
Juana and her family escaped from their enslaver’s home around 1675. For six months, they lived in the forests near Cartagena, creating simple shelters from branches. They then moved to a second location outside the city, where they built two huts. A few years later, the family moved again, this time to a community for self-emancipated people that they called Matudere. Juana later said she and Domingo founded Matudere in 1681, but it is likely that they joined and took over an existing settlement that was founded six years earlier. Juana took on a leadership role in the community, calling herself la Virreina, the vice-queen.
Matudere was one of many communities formed by self-emancipated people in the forests around Cartagena. These communities provided self-emancipated people with safety and support. They sometimes even traded and maintained diplomatic ties with the Spanish to keep both sides safe. The Spanish agreed to let self-emancipated communities live without interference if the members of those communities did not attack colonists in Cartagena. But Matudere residents occasionally raided Spanish homes and emancipated the enslaved people they encountered.
Communities like Matudere were seen as a threat by the Spanish colonists of Cartagena. The self-emancipated people who lived in these communities kept mostly to themselves, but their very existence proved that escape from slavery was possible. Spanish enslavers knew that they were a minority, vastly outnumbered by the people they held in bondage. If the enslaved people of Cartagena revolted, they could overthrow Spanish rule. Some Spanish colonists felt like they were surrounded by enemies who could attack at any moment. They demanded that the colonial government do something about this growing threat.
To try to help the residents of Matudere live in peace, the Catholic leader Fernando Zapata visited Matudere in early 1693. His goal was to convince residents of Matudere to convert to Christianity and promise loyalty to Spain. He was pleased to find a Catholic church already operating in the free Black community and witnessed the community reciting Catholic prayers.
Matudere was one of many communities formed by self-emancipated people in the forests around Cartagena.
Fernando’s report was not enough to calm the fears posed by this free Black community. Only one month later, the governor of Cartagena sent a group of sixty Spanish soldiers to Matudere. Matudere warriors ambushed the Spanish soldiers and defeated them. They stole their weapons and sent the governor a body part of the Spanish commander. This kind of show of strength was common in West African warfare, but the Spanish colonists in Cartagena were unfamiliar with this practice. The incident only increased their fear that the people of Matudere were going to start a rebellion.
The governor responded by personally leading the next attack on Matudere. They approached during a thunderstorm to escape detection. The gunpowder stored in Matudere exploded during the raid, setting small fires all over the community. Residents fled into the forest to escape. The Spanish tracked them down for weeks, offering ransom money for the capture of any Matudere community members. Juana, her husband, and two sons were among the last people to be captured.
The governor hired an artist to paint a portrait of Juana while she was in prison, revealing that she was a person of some importance to her community. The painting may have been a trophy of his victory over her. He kept the portrait in his residence for years. Unfortunately, the current location of the portrait is unknown.
The Spanish captured around 250 survivors of the raid on Matudere and interrogated them all. The little historians know about Juana and her life comes from her interrogation. When an official asked why she called herself la Virreina, or vice-queen, of Matudere, Juana responded that she had founded the community. Even imprisoned and facing brutal punishment, Juana was proud of what she had achieved.
When the interrogations were complete, the governor declared all the self-emancipated people of Matudere guilty. Juana’s husband Domingo was sentenced to death for his role as a leader in Matudere. Juana was also a leader, but her gender saved her life. She was sentenced to 200 lashes and exile. Her sons each received one hundred lashes and were returned to their enslaver.
Historians do not know what happened to Juana after sentencing. She was likely sold into slavery elsewhere in the Spanish colonies in the Americas, a common punishment for enslaved people considered “too rebellious” or hard to control.
Vocabulary
- baptize: To be made a member of a Christian Church.
- Catholic: A Christian who follows the pope in Rome.
- Christianity: The group of religions based on the teachings of Jesus Christ.
- exile: Being forced to leave one’s home country.
- Peru: The colony of Spain that covered most of South America.
- self-emancipated: People who have freed themselves from slavery, usually by running away or purchasing their freedom.
Discussion Questions
- Why is so little known about Juana, la Virreina de Matudere and the community of Matudere? Why is it important to study what is known about this story?
- How did the people of Matudere build and strengthen their community? How did they try to keep themselves safe from the Spanish?
- Why did the Spanish colonial government attack Matudere? What does that say about the relationships between Spanish colonists and enslaved communities?
- How did Juana, la Virreina de Matudere’s sentence differ from her husband’s? What does this demonstrate about gender in the Spanish colonies?
Suggested Activities
- APUSH Connection: 2.4 Transatlantic Trade
- Include this life story in a lesson about slavery in the Spanish colonies. It shows that many enslaved people were able to escape and create their own communities, but there could be terrible consequences for seeking freedom.
- Pair this life story with Life Story: Marie-Josèphe Angélique, another woman who attempted to escape slavery. What do their stories have in common? What do they say about the challenges of seeking freedom?
- Combine this life story with The Diary of Úrsula de Jesús and The Middle Passage to consider the experiences of enslaved African women in the Spanish colonies.
- For a larger lesson on slavery and freedom in the colonial era, teach this life story alongside:
Themes
POWER AND POLITICS
